The lenght between SEA bed to the highest point of a vessel is called AIR DRAUGHT, commonly it is useful to passing the vessel from a low rise brigde.
Saturday, September 29, 2012
ADDRESS COMMISSION
Address commission fairly known as ADDCOM is a term or arrangement used by BULK chartering.Commission payable by the shipowner to the charterer, expressed as a percentage of the freight or hire. Although this commission was sought by charterers as a means of reducing the freight or hire,Further in layman language it is a commission paid by ship owner to the charterer for the reduction in fright rate, further it can be adjusted in freight or can be paid by ship owner, Actually a charterer has so many large shipping department which used to run by money and this commission will shows in book keeping or account about the money in flow.
Tuesday, August 28, 2012
GENERAL CARGO SHIP
A cargo ship or freighter is any sort of ship or vessel that carries cargo, goods, and materials from one port to another. Thousands of cargo carriers ply the world's seas and oceans each year; they handle the bulk of international trade. Cargo ships are usually specially designed for the task, often being equipped with cranes and other mechanisms to load and unload, and come in all sizes. Today, they are almost always built of welded steel, and with some exceptions generally have a life expectancy of 25 to 30 years before being scrapped.
History of General Cargo Ships
The earliest records of waterborne activity mention the carriage of items for trade; the evidence of history and archaeology shows the practice to be widespread by the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. The desire to operate trade routes over longer distances and at more seasons of the year motivated improvements in ship design during the middle Ages. Before the middle of the 19th century, the incidence of piracy resulted in most cargo ships being armed, sometimes quite heavily, as in the case of the Manila galleons and East Indiamen. This sometimes resulted in the ships being escorted.
Classification
The modern ocean shipping business is divided into two classes:-
Liner business: typically (but not exclusively) container vessels (wherein "general cargo" is carried in 20 or 40-foot "boxes"), operating as "common carriers", calling a regularly-published schedule of ports. A common carrier refers to a regulated service where any member of the public may book cargo for shipment, according to long-established and internationally agreed rules.
Tramp-tanker business: generally this is private business arranged between the shipper and receiver and facilitated by the vessel owners or operators, who offer their vessels for hire to carry bulk (dry or liquid) or break bulk (cargoes with individually handled pieces) to any suitable port(s) in the world, according to a specifically drawn contract, called a charter party.
Structure:-
Function :-
Multi-purpose vessels, designed to handle and stow a variety of freight. This may include forest products, manufactured goods, heavy equipment, vehicles, machinery, bagged goods, steel and food products, and containers. Some specialised vessels combine general cargo with heavy lift capabilities for transporting large, awkwardly shaped components to refinery, chemical processing and other plant construction projects
LINER & TRAMP SHIPPING
As we know that the transportation of goods or cargo by water is very cheap and cost saving method. At the same time we are also very much agree that it is a totally customer oriented business, and profit maximization as well return on investment totally depends and concerned with the satisfaction of needs of a customer. Further to make it flexible and extensively availability of services between two destination operators of shipping services or shipping line come with a proper solution and divided the service in Tramp & Liner.
LINER SERVICE: - In most layman language we can say that liner service is a service which stick to the pre decided routine and schedule of sailing, Further a shipping line who carry and transport goods and cargo with a fixed route and pre schedule and a high level of cargo safety is called Liner shipping, in this kind of service the ports of call and time taken during voyage has been pre decided and published by lines in advertisement and accordingly shipper can book their cargo. As it’s a regular and continuous process so that its is also considered as the most reliable service.
CONSTRAINTS OF LINER SERVICE:-
Highly competitive
Hard to entry and exit.
Volatile.
High investment
Affected by global economic scenario.
Unpredictable demand.
TRAMP SERVICE: - Dry bulk cargo or liquid bulk known as the tramp trades and the vessels which available to transport these cargos known as a “TRAMP SHIP” and service known as the tramp service. Tramp service will not have the fixed route and schedule of sailing as it will operate according to the availability of cargo in different port. In most layman language we can say tramp service is just as a taxi service which is hired to go for a single journey and without any fix route. These kind of services mainly operated by vessel charter.
CONSTRAINTS OF TRAMP SERVICE:-
Highly volatile market.
Depends upon the bulk trades
Unpredictable demand.
Geographical constraint.
Profit sharing.
Tuesday, August 7, 2012
HOW TO DEAL WITH SHIPPING RATES
I hope you people reading my blogs and supporting me in great way to share my knowledge with you, I also guess it is also helping you to deal with day to day operation issues’ related to shipping and logistics, Further I assume you used to face one more snag on daily basis i.e. deal with shipping lines, so in this blog I’ll try to give you some handy suggestion to overcome this problem. Trust me when I joined my first organization after completing my MBA in shipping & marine this was the first issue who gave me continuous headache and twinge. After lots of effort I formulated following points which solve most of the hurdles related to shipping rates also its help me to retain my customers (which are the greatest headache in present corporate scenario) as well as saving the cost for the organization. Whether you decide to transport your goods across the country or across the globe the process can leave you feeling stressed and harried. To ensure a smooth and hassle free move follow these steps:-
1. Negotiating with individual carriers: - Leave no room for guesstimating get at least three or four estimates from highly rated shipping company.
2. Using an RFP (requisition for proposals) process:- An increasing number of companies, however, are learning that the RFP process is often the best strategy for obtaining the most competitive pricing. Here are some of the key advantages of an RFP:-
It's an efficient way to learn what price the market will bear. One RFP can be sent to as many carriers as you choose.
The transportation business is extremely competitive. Your company's shipping clerks and traffic manager are constantly being contacted by persistent carriers who want their business. When those carriers receive RFP's, they know they finally have the chance they’ve wanted, and they will naturally propose aggressive pricing to take advantage of the opportunity. Carriers you have been doing business with will understand that they could lose your account if they don't make a competitive proposal. The positive effect on your company's bottom line is obvious.
The organized approach needed to prepare an RFP encourages your company to review its transportation requirements, so that pricing is obtained for the services that will truly meet your needs.
3. Identify requirements:- Meet with the appropriate staff , company-wide, to review and clarify transportation requirements, obtain feedback about current carrier performance, latest service offered by the organization etc.
4. Gather data: - obtain report from shipping company as well as your company about all the last shipment and make an analysis about changes which needed at this point of time.
5. Determine your preferred pricing and contract formats:- Carriers vary in the pricing and contract formats they prefer. Naturally, they tailor them to their advantage. In order to allow "apples to apples" comparisons of the proposals you'll receive, and in order to protect your company’s interests, require all carriers to use the pricing and contract formats you prefer. Tell carriers that any accessorial charges (e.g. trailer detention, etc.) must be indicated in the proposal and the contract, rather than included by reference to the carrier’s Rules Tariff. If your company doesn’t have its own standard transportation contract, a transportation consultant can draft one for you.
Finally I hope it will help you out in any problematic situation related to pricing in the mean time if you got some important suggestion then please let me know.
1. Negotiating with individual carriers: - Leave no room for guesstimating get at least three or four estimates from highly rated shipping company.
2. Using an RFP (requisition for proposals) process:- An increasing number of companies, however, are learning that the RFP process is often the best strategy for obtaining the most competitive pricing. Here are some of the key advantages of an RFP:-
It's an efficient way to learn what price the market will bear. One RFP can be sent to as many carriers as you choose.
The transportation business is extremely competitive. Your company's shipping clerks and traffic manager are constantly being contacted by persistent carriers who want their business. When those carriers receive RFP's, they know they finally have the chance they’ve wanted, and they will naturally propose aggressive pricing to take advantage of the opportunity. Carriers you have been doing business with will understand that they could lose your account if they don't make a competitive proposal. The positive effect on your company's bottom line is obvious.
The organized approach needed to prepare an RFP encourages your company to review its transportation requirements, so that pricing is obtained for the services that will truly meet your needs.
3. Identify requirements:- Meet with the appropriate staff , company-wide, to review and clarify transportation requirements, obtain feedback about current carrier performance, latest service offered by the organization etc.
4. Gather data: - obtain report from shipping company as well as your company about all the last shipment and make an analysis about changes which needed at this point of time.
5. Determine your preferred pricing and contract formats:- Carriers vary in the pricing and contract formats they prefer. Naturally, they tailor them to their advantage. In order to allow "apples to apples" comparisons of the proposals you'll receive, and in order to protect your company’s interests, require all carriers to use the pricing and contract formats you prefer. Tell carriers that any accessorial charges (e.g. trailer detention, etc.) must be indicated in the proposal and the contract, rather than included by reference to the carrier’s Rules Tariff. If your company doesn’t have its own standard transportation contract, a transportation consultant can draft one for you.
Finally I hope it will help you out in any problematic situation related to pricing in the mean time if you got some important suggestion then please let me know.
Friday, June 22, 2012
Difference between House bill of lading & Master bill of lading
What is the difference between House Bill of Lading, Master Bill of Lading..
- House Bill of Lading (HBL) is issued by the NVOCC/Freight Forwarder to the actual customer
- Master Bill of Lading (MBL) is issued by the Shipping Line (Carrier) to the NVOCC/Freight Forwarder – also known as Ocean Bill of Lading
- House Bill of Lading will be an EXACT replica of the Master Bill of Lading issued by the actual Shipping line in respect of cargo details.. The only difference will be that the shipper, consignee and notify party details will be different in the HBL and MBL..
In the HBL
- the Shipper will usually be the actual shipper/exporter of the cargo (or as dictated by the L/C)
- the Consignee will usually be the actual receiver/importer of the cargo (or as dictated by the L/C)
- the Notify could be the same as Consignee or any other party as dictated by the L/C)
In the MBL
- the Shipper will usually be the NVOCC operator or their agent or the Freight Forwarder..
- the Consignee will usually be the destination agent or counterpart or office of the NVOCC operator or the Freight Forwarder
- the Notify could be the same as Consignee or any other party..
The rest of the details like vessel/voyage information, cargo description, number of containers, seal numbers, weight, measurements etc etc will all remain the same..
Unless required otherwise by the L/C, the HBL can also be used as a negotiable document and can be considered the title of goods and receipt of cargo same as an MBL.. In the interest of the NVOCC operator and their insurance coverage/exposure, it is recommended that all the details except the shipper, consignee and notify details on the HBL remain the same on the MBL..
Wednesday, February 29, 2012
EXPORT PROCESS
Processing an Export order
You should not be happy merely on receiving an export order. You should
first acknowledge the export order, and then proceed to examine carefully in
respect of items, specification, preshipment inspection, payment conditions, special
packaging, labeling and marketing requirements, shipment and delivery date,
marine insurance, documentation etc. if you are satisfied on these aspects, a
formal confirmation should be sent to the buyer, otherwise clarification should
be sought from the buyer before confirming the order. After confirmation of the
export order immediate steps should be taken for procurement/manufacture of the
export goods. In the meanwhile, you should proceed to enter into a formal
export contract with the overseas buyer.
Entering into an Export contract
In order to avoid disputes, it is necessary to enter into an export contract
with the overseas buyer. For this purpose, export contract should be carefully
drafted incorporating comprehensive but in precise terms, all relevant and
important conditions of the trade deal.
There should not be any ambiguity regarding the exact specifications of
goods and terms of sale including export price, mode of payment, storage and
distribution methods, type of packaging, port of shipment, delivery schedule
etc. The different aspects of an export contract are enumerated as under :
- Product, Standards and Specifications
- Quantity
- Inspection
- Total Value of Contract
- Terms of Delivery
- Taxes, Duties and Charges
- Period of Delivery/Shipment
- Packing, Labeling and Marking
- Terms of Payment-- Amount/Mode & Currency
- Discounts and Commissions
- Licenses and Permits
- Insurance
- Documentary Requirements
- Guarantee
- Force Majeure of Excuse for Non-performance of contract
- Remedies
- Arbitration It will not be out of place to mention here the importance of arbitration clause in an export contract Court proceedings do not offer a satisfactory method for settlement of commercial disputes, as they involve inevitable delays, costs and technicalities. On the other hand, arbitration provides an economic, expeditious and informal remedy for settlement of commercial disputes. Arbitration proceedings are conducted in privacy and the awards are kept confidential. The Arbitrator is usually an expert in the subject matter of the dispute. The dates for arbitration meetings are fixed with the convenience of all concerned. Thus, arbitration is the most suitable way for settlements of commercial disputes and it may invariably be used by businessmen in their commercial dealings.
The Indian Council of Arbitration Federation House,
Tansen Marg, New Delhi. (Ph. 3319251 Fax:3320714) is a specialized arbitration
institution providing arbitration facilities for all types of domestic or
international commercial disputes. You should use their services as far a
possible.
BRIEF SPECIMEN CONTRACT FORM FOR SALE PURCHASE
TRANSACTIONS
EXPORTS AND IMPORTS
- Name and address of the parties.......(state correct appellation and complete address of the parties)
- We, the above named parties have entered into this contract for the sale/purchase, etc. ....... (state briefly the purpose of the contract) on this ........(date) at ........(place)..... subject to the following terms and conditions:
- Goods ................
- Quantity ...............Quality................. (Describe the quantity, quality and the other specifications of the goods precisely as per the agreement. An agency for inspection/certification of quality and/or quantity may also be stipulated).
- Price................ Mode of payment ...................(Quote the price, terms, i.e. ex-works/FOB(free on board) CIF(Cost, Insurance & Freight) etc. in the currency agreed upon and describe the mode of payment i.e. payment against L/C(letter of credit)/DA (document against acceptance) /D/P(document against payment)etc. It is also desirable to mention the exchange rate.)
- Shipment...............(Specify date of delivery and the maximum period upto which delivery could be delayed and for which reasons, port of shipment and delivery should be mentioned).
- Packing and marking...............(Requirements to be specified precisely)
- Insurance .................(State the type of insurance cover required, i.e. FPA(free from particular average)/WA (with average)/ All Risks, etc. State also the party responsible for insurance)
- Brokerage/Commission ........(if any payable may be mentioned)
- Passing of the property and of risk. The property or ownership of the goods and the risk shall finally pass to the buyer at such stage as the parties may agree, i.e. when the goods are delivered at the seller's place of work/pass the ship's rails/are covered by insurance etc. as per agreed terms).
Arbitration
Arbitration clause recommended by the Indian
Council of Arbitration: "All disputes or differences whatsoever arising
between the parties out of relating to the construction, meaning and operation
or effect of this contract or the breach thereof shall be settled by arbitration
in accordance with the rules of the arbitration of the Indian Council of
Arbitration and the award made in pursuance thereof shall be binding on the
parties."(or any other arbitration clause that may be agreed upon between
the parties). 3.Any other special condition, prevalent in or relevant to the
particular line of trade or transaction, may also be specified.
Sd/-Seller
Sd/-Buyer
Notes: The above specimen contract
form, drawn up in brief essentials, is meant for simple small scale
transactions and is intended to draw the attention of the parties to important
aspects of the trade deal in drafting the contract. The parties are free to add
to or modify the terms as per the peculiar nature of their trade transaction.
They may also consult with advantage, experienced commercial or arbitration
bodies for the purpose or study published literature on the subject. The use of
the arbitration clauses in commercial contracts is becoming increasingly
commom, particularly in export-import transactions, with a view to promoting
smooth and swift flow of business. The Indian Council of Arbitration (ICA)
which is partly founded by the Government of India, provides comprehensive
institutional arbitration service to all government departments and public
undertakings as well as private traders, exporters and importers in India for
amicable and quick settlement of all types of commercial disputes. It has been
suggested by the Ministry of Commerce that all commercial organisations should
make use of the arbitration clause of the Council in their commercial contracts
with Indian and foreign parties.
Export Pricing
and Costing
Export pricing should be differentiated from export
costing. Price is what we offer to the customer.Cost is the price that we
pay/incur for the product. Price includes our profit margin, cost includes only
expenses we have incurred. Export pricing is the most important tool for
promoting sales and facing international competition. The price has to be
realistically worked out taking into consideration all export benefits and
expenses. However, there is no fixed formula for successful export pricing. It
will differ from exporter to exporter depending upon whether the exporter is a
merchant exporter or a manufacturer exporter or exporting through a canalising
agency. You should also assess the strength of your competitor and anticipate
the move of the competitor in the market. Pricing strategies will depend on
various circumstantial situations. You can still be competitive with higher
prices but with better delivery package or other advantages.
Your prices will be determined by the following
factors:
- Range of products offered
- Prompt deliveries and continuity in supply
- After-sales service in products like machine tools, consumer durables
- Product differentiation and brand image
- Frequency of purchase
- Presumed relationship between quality and price
- Specialty value goods and gift items
- Credit offered
- Preference or prejudice for products originating from a particular source
- Aggressive marketing and sales promotion
- Prompt acceptance and settlement of claims
- Unique value goods and gift items
Export Costing is basically Cost Accountant's job.
It consists of fixed cost and variable cost comprising various elements. It is
advisable to prepare an export costing sheet for every export product. For the
format of the export costing sheet and other relevant details refer to Nabhi's
EXPORTERS MANUAL AND DOCUMENTATION.As regards quoting the prices to the
overseas buyer, the same are quoted in the following internationally accepted
terms:
Ex-Works: 'Ex-works' means that
your responsibility is to make goods available to the buyer at works or
factory. The full cost and risk involved in bringing the goods from this place
to the desired destination will be borne by the buyer. This term thus
represents the minimum obligation for you. It is mostly used for sale of
plantation commodities such as tea, coffee and cocoa.
Free on Rail(FOR): Free on
Truck(FOT):These terms are used when the goods are to be carried by rail, but
they are also used for road transport. Your obligations are fulfilled when the
goods are delivered to the carrier.
Free Alongside Ship (FAS): Once
the goods have been placed alongside the ship, your obligations are fulfilled
and the buyer notified. The buyer has to contract with the sea carrier for the
carriage of the goods to the destination and pay the freight. The buyer has to
bear all costs and risks of loss or damage to the goods hereafter.
Free on Board (FOB): Your
responsibility ends the moment the contracted goods are placed on board the
ship, free of cost to the buyer at a port of shipment named in the sales
contract. 'On board' means that a 'Received for Shipment' B/L (Bill of Lading)
is not sufficient. Such B/L if issued must be converted into 'Shipped on Board
B/L' by using the stamp 'Shipped on Board' and must bear signature of the
carrier or his authorised representative together with date on which the goods
were 'boarded'.
Cost and Freight (C&F): You
must on your own risk and not as an agent of the buyer, contract for the
carriage of the goods to the port of destination named in the sale contract and
pay the freight. This being a shipment contract, the point of delivery is fixed
to the ship's rail and the risk of loss or of damage to the goods is
transferred from the seller to the buyer at that very point. As will be seen
though you bear the cost of carriage to the named destination, the risk is
already transferred to the buyer at the port of shipment itself.
Cost Insurance Freight (CIF): The
term is basically the same as C&F, but with the addition that you have to
obtain insurance at your cost against the risks of loss or damage to the goods
during the carriage.
Freight or Carriage Paid (DCP):
While C&F is used for goods which are to be carried by sea, the term
"DCP" is used for land transport only, including national and
international transport by road, rail and inland waterways. You have to
contract for the carriage of the goods to the agreed destination named in the
contract of the sale and pay freight. Your obligations are fulfilled when the
goods are delivered to the first carrier and not beyond. In case the buyer
desires you to insure the goods till the destination, he would add 'including
insurance' before the word 'Paid in Freight' or 'Carriage Paid to'.
EXS/EX-Ship: This is an arrival
contract and means that you make the goods available to the buyer in the ship
at the named port of destination as per sales contract. You have to bear the
full cost and risk involved in bringing the goods there. Your obligation is
fulfilled before the customs border of the foreign country and it is for the
buyer to obtain necessary import license at his own risk and expense.
EXQ/Ex-Quay: Ex-Quay means that
you make the goods available to the buyer at a named quay. As in the term
'Ex-Ship' the points of division of costs and risks coincide, but they have now
been moved one step further -- from the ship into the quay or wharf i.e. after
crossing the customs border at destination. Therefore, in addition to arranging
for carriage and paying freight and insurance you have to bear the cost of
unloading the goods from the ship.
Delivered at Frontier (DAF): The
term is primarily intended to be used when the goods are to be carried by rail
or road. Your obligations are fulfilled when the goods have arrived at the
frontier, but before the 'Customs border' of the country named in the sales
contract.
Delivery Duty Paid (DDP): This
term may be used irrespective of the type of transport involved and denotes your
maximum obligation as opposed to 'Ex-Works'. You have not fulfilled his
obligation till such time that the goods are made available at his risk and
cost to the buyer at his premises or any other named destination. In the latter
case necessary documents (e.g. transport document or Warehouse Warrant) will
have to be made available to the buyer to enable him to take delivery of goods.
The term 'duty' includes taxes, fees and charges.Therefore, the obligation to
pay VAT (Value Added Tax) levied upon importation will fall upon you. It is,
therefore, advisable to use 'exclusive of VAT' after the words 'duty paid'.
FAO/FOB Airport: 'FOB Airport' is
based on the same main principle as the ordinary FOB term. You fulfill your
obligation by delivering the goods to the air carrier at the airport of
departure. Without the buyer's approval delivery at a town terminal outside the
airport is not sufficient, your obligations with respect to costs and risks do
not extend to the arrival of the goods at the destination.
Free Carrier (Named Point) FRC:
The term has been designed particularly to meet the requirements of modern
transport like 'multi-modal' transport as container or 'roll-on-roll-off'
traffic by trailers and ferries. The principles on which the term is based is same
as applicable to FOB except that the seller or the exporter fulfills his
obligations when he delivers the goods into the custody of the carrier at the
named point.
Freight Carriage and Insurance Paid (CIP):
The term is similar to 'Freight or Carriage Paid to'. However, in case of CIP
you have additionally to procure transport insurance against the risk of loss
or damage to the goods during the carriage. You contract with the insurer and
pay the insurance premium.
Understanding risks in International trade
While selling abroad, you may undergo the following
risks:
- Credit risk
- Currency risk
- Carriage risk
- Country risk
These risks can be insured to a great extent by
taking appropriate steps. Credit risk against the buyer can be covered by
insisting upon an irrevocable letter of credit from the overseas buyer. An
appropriate policy from Export Credit and Guarantee Corporation of India Ltd.
can also be obtained for this purpose. Country risks are also covered by the
ECGC. As regards currency risk, i.e. possible loss due to adverse fluctuation
in exchange rate, You should obtain forward cover from your bank authorised to
deal in foreign exchange. Alternatively, you should obtain export order in
Indian rupee. Carriage risk, i.e. possible loss of cargo in transit can be
covered by taking a marine insurance policy from the general insurance
companies.
MAJOR AND JOINT VENTURE PORTS OF INDIA
WHAT IS PORT ?
A port is a facility for receiving ships and transferring cargo. They are usually found at the edge of an ocean, sea, river, or lake. Ports often have cargo-handling equipment such as cranes (operated by longshoremen) and forklifts for use in loading/unloading of ships, which may be provided by private interests or public bodies. Often, canneries or other processing facilities will be located near by. Harbour pilots and tugboats are often used to maneuver large ships in tight quarters as they approach and leave the docks. Ports which handle international traffic have customs facilities.
The terms "port" and "seaport" are used for ports that handle ocean-going vessels, and "river port" is used for river traffic, such as barges and other shallow draft vessels. Some ports on a lake, river, or canal have access to a sea or ocean, and are sometimes called "inland ports". A "fishing port" is a type of port or harbor facility particularly suitable for landing and distributing fish. A "dry port" is a term sometimes used to describe a yard used to place containers or conventional bulk cargo, usually connected to a seaport by rail or road. A "warm water port" is a port where the water does not freeze in winter. Because they are available year-round, warm water ports can be of great geopolitical or economic interest, with the ports of Saint Petersburg and Valdez being notable examples. A "port of call" is an intermediate stop, for example to collect supplies or fuel.
Cargo containers allow efficient transport and distribution by eliminating loading of smaller packages at each transportation point, and allowing the shipping unit to be sealed for its entire journey. Standard containers can easily be loaded on a ship, train, truck, or airplane, greatly simplifying intermodal transfers. Cargo often arrives by train and truck to be consolidated at a port and loaded onto a large container ship for international transport. At the destination port, it is distributed by ground transport
THE MAJOR PORTS IN THE WORLD IS:-
As we know that the world is made of 33% land and 66% water it menas most of the land area is surrounded by water,so there is so many ports in the world some the major ports are Singapore,Bostan,New York,Dubai,Bombay,Los angles,Durban,VIGO,Hong kong etc.
MAJOR PORTS IN INDIA:-
The management and development of the major ports in the country are controlled by the central government through respective port trusts. Minor ports are controlled by state governments.
• India currently has 12 major ports and 184 minor /intermediate ports spread across the vast coastline of 7517 kms. They handle almost 90 per cent of India’s total foreign trade.
• The total cargo volume handled by major ports has increased from around 157.5 million tonnes in 1992 to over 288 million tonnes in 2001-02. This accounts for almost 76 per cent while the remaining 24 per cent is handled by the minor ports. Liquid and dry bulk cargo constitutes about 83 per cent of the total volume of traffic handled. Container and general cargo comprise the remaining.
• The current handling capacity of the major ports in the country is around 344 million tonnes. This has been achieved through construction of a new port at Ennore and a mechanised coal handling facility at Paradip. These two facilities entailed an investment of around US$ 394 million.
(INDIA’S MAJOR PORTS)
India has eleven major sea ports: Kandla, Bombay, Nhava Sheva, Marmagao, New Mangalore, and Kochi (formerly known as Cochin) on the west coast, and Calcutta-Haldia, Paradip, Vishakhapatnam, Madras, and Tuticorin on the east coast. The port at Nhava Sheva, located across the harbor from Bombay Port, was established in 1982 under the administration of the Jawaharlal Nehru Port Trust as a separate port rather than an adjunct to Bombay. The eleven ports in India are the responsibility of the Ministry of State for Surface Transport but are managed by semi-independent port trusts overseen by boards appointed by the ministry from government departments, including the navy, port labor and industry, and ship owners and shipping companies.
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1).Chennai (oldest and artificial):-
History:-
Chennai Port, is more than a century old artificial port, and located in Chennai, South India, is one of the major ports on the Coromandel coast of India. The initial piers were built in 1861, but the storms of 1868 and 1872 made them inoperative. So the Masonry work for L shaped breakwaters was started in 1876, but the storm of 1881 completely washed the almost completed harbour. The Chennai Port Trust has taken the year of rebuilding 1881 as the starting year and is now celebrating its 125th anniversary. The port's quays (berths) were constructed at different periods — the South Quay I in 1913, the five West Quay berths between 1916 and 1920, the North Quay in 1931 and the South Quay II in 1936, in the Inner Harbour, later christened Dr Ambedkar Dock.
From 1881 to 1945, the cargo handled in Madras port varied from 0.5 million tonnes to 1 million tonnes. By 1979-80, the traffic touched 10 million tonnes, and increased to 15 million tonnes in 1984-85. By 1991-92, the volume was 25 million tonnes, touching 41 million tonnes in 2000-01. Though there was a slump in the next three years, the port recovered, to handle 47.25 million tonnes in 2005-06. In the current fiscal, the cargo handled is expected to cross 50 million tonnes. The car exports from this port are expected to touch 300,000 by 2008.
Operations
Chennai Port has 21 alongside berths in the 3 Docks viz., Dr.Ambedkar Dock, satabt Jawahar Dock, Bharathi Dock and Container Terminal. Chennai Port handles a variety of cargo including iron ore, coal, granite, fertilizers, petroleum products, containers, automobiles and several other types of general cargo items. Due to the increase in container traffic, its second container terminal is being planned based on a build and operate model. [2] It has asked for support for a mega container terminal. The terminal would be the first deep water terminal of its kind in India and would be able to handle ultra-large container ships of 13,000-15,000 TEUS capacity and length exceeding 400 metres[3]. The management of the container terminal was taken over by P&O Ports of Australia. This has a volume growth of 20% per year and has 59% of the market share of South India. It has services to Singapore, Malaysia, Thailand, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Korea, China, Mediterranean, Europe, Australia and the US.
2)KOLKATA PORT:-
Port of Kolkata is a riverine port in the city of Kolkata, India. It is the oldest operating port in India, having originally been constructed by the British East India Company.
The Port has two distinct dock systems - Kolkata Docks at Kolkata and a deep water dock at Haldia Dock Complex, Haldia.
In the 19th century Kolkata Port was the premier port in British India. After independence its importance decreased because of factors including the Partition of Bengal (1947), reduction in size of the port hinterland and economic stagnation in eastern India. In the 21st century due to the east Indian economic recovery and infrastructure improvements, the port grew swiftly to become the nation's second largest container port. It was one of India's fastest growing ports in 2004-05.
Aerial picture of the Calcutta Port in 1945
Dock systems
The Kolkata Port Trust manages two separate dock agglomerations - the Kolkata Dock System (KDS) and the Haldia Dock Complex (HDC).
Kolkata Dock System(KDS)
It is situated on the left bank of the Hooghly River at 22° 32' 53" N, 88° 18' 5" E — about 203 km (126 miles) upstream from the sea. The pilotage station is at Gasper/ Saugor roads, 145 Kilometers to the south of the KDS (around 58 km from the sea). The system consists of:
Kidderpore Docks (K.P. Docks) : 18 Berths, 6 Buoys / Moorings and 3 Dry Docks
Netaji Subhas Docks (N.S. Docks): 10 Berths, 2 Buoys / Moorings and 2 Dry Docks
Budge Budge River Moorings : 6 Petroleum Wharves
Anchorages : Diamond Harbour — 1. Saugor Road 2. Sandheads
Apart from this, there are around 80 major riverine jetties, and many minor jetties, and a large number of ship breaking berths.
It is situated at 22°02' N, 88°06 E — 60 kilometers away from the pilotage station. The complex consists of:
Impounded Dock. System with 12 Berths
3 Oil Jetties in the River
3 Barge Jetties in the River for handling Oil carried by Barges.
Haldia Anchorage for LASH vessels
All the docks are impounded dock systems with locks from river.
3) MANGLORE PORT:-
Sea entrance to Mangalore Harbour
New Mangalore Port known by the name of New Mangalore Port Trust ( NMPT ) is the only major port of Karnataka and is currently the ninth largest port in India. It was formally inaugurated on May 4, 1974 by the then prime minister Indira Gandhi. The construction began in 1962. The port is situated at Panambur, Mangalore on the west cost of India.It is situated to north of confluence of Gurupura( Phalguni ) river to Arabian sea .It is 170 nautical miles (310 km) south of Mormugao Port & 191 nautical miles (354 km) north of Kochi Port. The port situated in Panambur is called New Mangalore Port, as there is an old harbour or port located in Mangalore city which is called by Mangalore bunder or Hale bunder. The old harbour is located to south of New mangalore port. Old port is now being used for fishing and for ferrying small goods.
The national highway 17 ( NH-17 )passes adjoining the port. The nearest railway station is Thokur, but passengers have to alight at Suratkal Railway station which is on Konkan railway route .The Surathkal railway station is approximately 6 kilometres from the New Mangalore port.
The port serves hinterland of Karnataka state and to some extent state of Kerala. The major commodities exported through the port are Iron Ore concentrates & pellets, Iron Ore fines, manganese,granite stones, coffee,cashew and containerized cargo. The major imports of the port are crude and petroleum products, LPG, wood pulp, timber logs, finished fertilizers, liquid ammonia, phosphoric acid, other liquid chemicals, containerized cargo, etc.
4) GOA:-
At the time of its commissioning in 1888, the Mormugao Port comprised of 3 berths along with a breakwater having a length of 358 meters. As the years rolled by, the infrastructure slowly kept growing. By 1922, Berths 4 and 5 were built and the breakwater was extended to its present length of 522.40 meters. A mole of 270 meters was added.
Mormugao Port, went through a fair amount of change as the emphasis shifted to development of infrastructure. A couple of years after liberation, the port was delinked from the Railway management. The main railway section from Vasco da Gama to the border of Goa was transferred to the Southern Railways. The Port however, operated its own railway system between Vasco da Gama interchange point and the harbour area.
DEVELOPMENT AND OPERATION
Major developments of the Port were taken up only after it became a Major Port. A number of developmental projects were implemented under the various Five Year Plans of the Government of India. Consequently, a dedicated mineral oil berth, berth No. 8 was constructed in 1976. Later on as the general cargo traffic was gradually picking up in the Port, a number of schemes were implemented with a view to augment the general cargo handling facilities at the Port. Two multi-purpose general cargo berths, berth No.10 and No. 11 having draft of 11.00 mts and 12.50 mts were constructed and commissioned in 1985 and 1994 respectively. Meanwhile the Mechanical Ore Handling Plant installed in 1959 at Berth No. 6 was de-commissioned in 1992 due to obsolesce. The age old berths 1 to 3 were leased out to a private company, Western India Shipyard Ltd, for installing a modern ship repair facility, which was commissioned in 1995. In 1997, the metre guage railway of the Port linking to the south Central Railway was converted to broad guage. By this, the Mormugao Port is now accessible for any part of the country through the broad guage railway system.
5) Visakhapatnam Port:-
Visakhapatnam Port is located between Kolkata and Chennai on the Bay of Bengal coast. The port handles domestic and international trade. Visakhapatnam city is a major city on the eastern coast of India.
Visakhapatnam Port contains 22 berths including ore berths, off shore oil tanker terminal, LPG berth, container terminal and two moorings. It has
6) JAWAHARLAL NEHRU PORT:-
HISTORY:-
JNPT also known as Nhava Sewa is a port in Maharashtra (Western India) bordered by Arabian Sea. This is one of the major ports in India named after the first PM of India Dr.Jwahar lal Nehru. It is the busiest port in India. This port is operated by J.N.P.T. trust which is entrusted with the operations of carrying out various shipping operations in Maharashtra.
NAVIGATION INFORMATION
PORT DESCRIPTION:
LOCATION :The port is situated along the eastern shore of Bombay harbour, SE of Elephanta island.
| LATITUDE | 18 DEG 57 N |
| LONGITUDE | 72 DEG 58 E |
| TIME ZONE | GMT + 5.5 |
| MAX. DRAFT | 12.5 |
GENERAL OVERVIEW:
The Port was commissioned in 1989.It is an all weather tidal port sheltered from wind and wave effects.
It has container berths which can handle 3rd genration cellular,gearless vessels as well as modern specialised ships such as car carriers.
There are 2 bulk berths which can handle vessels up to 80,000dwt.
Main cargoes handled are fertilizers, raw materials and food grains.
TRAFFIC FIGURES:
Annual container throughput is approx 180,000 TEUs dry bulk thoughput amounts to approx 3,500,00t annually.
NAVIGATION
SEA BUOY,FAIRWAYS AND CHANNELS : The Port shares a common channel with Bombay Port to the point of access to the south elephanta channel.
The Navigational channel is buoyed and 2 transit lights demark the centre of the approach channel ,is compulsory for all vessels above 100NRT.
The Pilot Boarding/Embarking area is approx. 1NM W of the Bombay Pilot Boarding area.the port has 3 pilot launches fitted with radar and vhf.
FACILITIES:
BULK TERMINAL:
Two grab unloaders with a unit capacity of 400cu m/hr;
Two continous unloaders with a unit capacity of 450cu m/hr
CONTAINER TERMINAL :
Three rail mounted quay cranes with 35.5T capacity under spreader with a 32.5 outreach from the fenders.a further 2 cranes should be in use by AUG 1995.
There are 11 rubber tyred gantry (RTG) cranes of 35.5T capacity including 3 RTG’S leased for a 10yr period . rail mounted gantry crane with 35.5T capacity is used for loading and unloading containers to/from container flats.
GENERAL INFORMATION
BUNKERS/WATER/STORES: Bunkers and Water available from fixed pipes/hoses at all berth.
TRANSPORT: ROADS: The Port is directly connect to state hwy 41 which connects to nation hwy no .4 a further hwy ,4b,is connected to the port.
NEAREST RAILWAY: Both the bulk and container terminal are linked with central railway panvel station which has links with all parts of the country.
7) KANDLA PORT TRUST :-
HISTORY:-
Kandla Port ,one of the 12 major ports in India has created history by creating a record volume of 52.98 mmt during the fiscal 2006- 07. The port has a humble saga of contributing significantly to the international maritime transport for the past 50 years. As a humble beginning in year by the great visionary the late Maharao Khengarjii (3) of the princely state of Kutch for a deep draught closed port in his kingdom, the port of Kandla came into existence in the year 1931 with a single pier construction.
Due to the loss of Karachi port after the post independence period the onus of entire Indian Port was shifted putting tremendous strain on Mumbai port facilities. Under the inspirational leadership of the iron man of India – Sardar Vallabhai Patel, the Indian Government on 17 Feb. 1948 constituted an expert committee known as the Western Coast Major Port Development Committee to explore the possibilities of establishing a deep sea port to cater the vast hinterland comprising the north western states of India.
LOCATION:-
The major port of Kandla is situated 90 kms. off the mouth of Gulf of Kutch
Longitude 70˚13’ E is the only major port in the Gujarat coastline along the west coast of the country. Among the 12 major ports in the country Kandla occupies an enviable position both in terms of international maritime trade tonnage handled and financial stability.
NAVIGATION FACILITIES: -
The navigational facilities may be listed as follows:-
Round the clock navigation.
Permissible draught -12.6 m
Ships with overall length 240 m and 65,000dwt. handled.
Safe, protected & vast anchorage for lighterage purpose.
Light house to aid night navigation.
Fully equipped signal station.
Four lighted shore beacons.
BERTHING INFORMATION:-
The Berthing information may be as follows:-
Container Berth :- 2 Berths at Ernakulum
Tanker Berth :- North tanker berth: Max LOA 213 m, max.draft 9.14m
Mooring Berth :- Max. LOA 213 m.
Cargo: - Bulk (dry and liquid), break bulk and containerized cargo handled.
8) TUTOCORIN PORT TRUST:-
HISTORY:
Tuticorin has been a centre for maritime trade and pearl fishery for more than a century. The natural harbour with a rich hinterland activated the development of the Port, initially with wooden piers and iron screw pile pier and connections to the railways. Tuticorin was declared as a minor anchorage port in 1868. Since then there have been various developments over the years.
Tuticorin became the citadel of the freedom struggle in the early 20th century. In 1906, one of the greatest freedom fighters of India, Mr. V.O. Chidambaram Pillai, launched the first swadeshi ship "S.S. Gaelia" in British India.
After Independence, the minor Port of Tuticorin witnessed a flourishing trade and handled a variety of cargo meant for the neighbouring countries of Sri Lanka, Maldives etc. and the coastal regions of India.
Port description:
Location:
The port of tuticorin lies on the SE tip of India in tamilnadu state on the west side of the Gulf of Mannar.
| LATITUDE | 08°45´N |
| LONGITUDE | 078°18´E |
| MAX DRAFT | 8.24m |
General overview: An artificial harbour has been created by two breakwaters providing a shelter.
Principal exports: salt, cotton yarn and clean waste, dried fish and cement.
Imports: Coal, machinery ,raw cotton ,wheat ,timber and fertilizers .
Traffic figure: over 4,000,000t of cargo and 7200 TEU´S are handled annually.
Max size: Largest Vessel handled Sagay Stoves a 64,535 DWT bulk carrier.
Berthing information: There are six berths .There are coal jetty consisting of conveyers and hoppers. Container berths, tanker berths are also available .
Storage: three ware houses of total space 15550sq m,2 transit sheds of 733 sq m are provided.Open storage space of 24000sq m is also available.
Facilities: Twelve cranes, hospital, freshwater, coal jetties and bunkering also available.
Transport Available: Nearest airport 150km Madurai airport ,railway 11km.
9) MORMUGAO PORT TRUST
PORT DESCRIPTION
LOCATION:-
Mormugao Port is situated on the west coast of south Mumbai, on the NE side of Mormugao Head. The location of the port in terms of
Latitude is 15˚25’N and Longitude is 73˚47’E.
GENERAL OVERVIEW :
The port has accommodation for both general and bulk cargoes. There are mid stream buoy berth for vessels loading from lighters, such operations are restricted to certain sheltered parts of the harbor during the south west monsoon.
The principal exports in the port are iron ore ,other ores, alumina, sugar, etc. where as the principal imports are liquid chemicals, coal, coke, and fertilizers.
The traffic figure ranges between 16,000,000 – 18,000,000 tons of cargo which is handled annually. The iron ore exports constitute around 85% of the total quantity.
BERTHING INFORMATION :-
There are also 4 transfer vessels in the harbor for loading iron ore into larger ore into larger ore carriers in mid stream at the loading rates ranging from 12,000-22,000 tpd. The port also provides facilities for handling iron ore. The loading rate of cargo (iron ore) by MOHP is available at 8000 tph. There are private agencies for topping off lightering operations. Ballast also dedicated ballast tanks can be carried out at any time. Discharging ballast may only be carried out from dedicated ballast tank. From cargo tanks which have been thoroughly cleaned at sea before ballasting.
10) PARADIP PORT TRUST:-
PORT DESCRIPTION
LOCATION :-
Paradip is located on the western shore of the Bay of Bengal which is approximately 12 km from the mouth of the Mahanadi river. It is located in the state of Orissa which is the south eastern coast of India.
The location of this port in terms of:-
Latitude is 20 ̊15’ N
Longitude is 86 ̊ 40’ E
GENERAL OVERVIEW :-
The cargo handled by the port includes pig iron, food grains, iron ore coal, chrome ore, and manganese ore. The port also handles cargoes like limestone, fertilizer, phosphoric acid, and liquid ammonia. It is estimated that this port handles around approx 6,00,000 tons of cargo annually.
PILOT :-
The pilotage is compulsory and available throughout 24 hours. The pilot boarding place is 1.5nm ESE of yhe harbour entrance.
ANCHORAGE :-
An Anchorage for cargo vessels has been established in an area of radius 5 cables centered 2.5nm SE of the harbour entrance; tankers anchor 1nm ESE. The dock density is 1010-1022 with the prevailing winds of NE and SW monsoon.
TUGS :-
There are four tugs available which join the vessels just inside the approach channel.
BERTHING INFORMATION
NAMES/NOS. :-
The ore berth can handle bulk ore carriers from 60,000 DWT to 80,000 DWT. draft of up to 12.8m. A mechanical berth loader can load upto 2500 tph. One buoy berth and one stream berth are also available.
STORAGE :- Four tansit sheds with a total area of 17,140 sq. m are available at the general cargo berths and warehouses with a total area of 8968 sq.m are also available.
GENERAL INFORMATION
REPAIRS :- Available.
BUNKERS :- Fresh water available.
TRANSPORT :- Good connectivity to road, rail, and air.
11) COCHIN PORT-
| |||||||||||||
Flotilla
| Dredgers | 3 |
| Harbour Barge Complement For | 2 |
| Porcelain Excavator | 1 |
| Barge For Porcelain Excavator | 1 |
| Tugs(for shipping) | 5 |
| Mooring Launches | 5 |
| Pilot Launches | 3 |
| Small Tugs/Launches | 13 |
| Water Barges | 2 |
| Floating Crane(120 T) | 1 |
| Fire Float | 1 |
Cargo
| Break Bulk | Iron and Steel, Food Grains, Coffee, Marine Products, Cement, Sugar, News Print , Machinery, Raw Cashew, Tea, Spices, etc. |
| Dry Bulk | Fertilizers, Sulphur, Rock Phosphate, Coal, Zinc Concentrate, Clinker, Wheat, etc. |
| Liquid Bulk | Crude, POL, Phosphoric Acid, Liquid Ammonia, Cashew shell Liquid, Palm Oil, Palm Fatty Acid etc. |
BERTHING OF THE FIRST VLCC - STAR II -AT SINGLE POINT MOORING AT COCHIN PORT.30 JAN 2008
SALIENT FEATURES-
ü Central documentation centres
| ü For providing Single Window Clearance for exports. ü A veteran of 60 years, instrumental in the growth of Kerala state. ü Natural, all weather port. ü Deep drafted alongside berths with modern cargo handling equipments. ü Computerised Network communication facilities 12) ENNORE PORT:- LOCATION- 24 kilometer north of Chennai port (TamilNadu) COAST- East coast of india ( Cormanadal coast) LATITUDE- 130 5 minute North LONGITUDE- 800 17 minute East GOVERNING BODY- Ennore Port Nigam Limited. CHAIRMAN- DRAFT- 13 meters Apprx. CAPACITY- 11.56 million tonnes Ennore port was originally conceived as a satellite port to Chennai port primarily handled to thermal coal to meet the the requirement of Tami lnadu Electricity board.The scope was expanded taking into account of sub sequent development plans of Tamil nadu government. SALIENT FEATURES- ü Ennore port is the multi-fuctional energy port. ü Ennore port deals in Coal,LNG ,POL Crude, and chemicals. ü Facilitate Handymax vessel for unloading of thermal coal. ü Ennore port is the first Corporatised port in India. The first port in India handled by a Public sector unit. |
PRIVATE AND JOINT VENTURE PORT IN INDIA:-
Mudra port is india’s largest private port provide cargo handling and other services owned by adani logistics ltd. Situated at the far west coast of india.
Mundra Port & Special Economic Zone
Mundra Special Economic Zone (SEZ), promoted by the Adani Group, is located in Kutch District, Gujarat and is the largest SEZ of India. It is spread over an area of 100 sq. km. with the first phase area of 6893 acres, already notified by the Government of India. This makes Mundra SEZ the first Large Format Private SEZ to be notified by the Government of India.
Additional Infrastructure facilities are:
- Airport, Railway, Road & Sea routes for transportation - Developed land (leveled & landscaped) with boundary walls and street lights - Utilities – Power, Water, Gas, Telecom, Info-comm - Drainage, Sewage, Water Desalination & Recycling - Housing, Education, Healthcare & recreational facilities - Warehouses, Container freight stations - Testing & Certification labs - Silos, Cool & Cold storages
Mundra SEZ already has all the components of Multi-modal Logistical Linkages: Port:
Mundra Muti-purpose Terminal and Mundra International Container Terminal are an integral part of Mundra SEZ. Mundra Multi-purpose Terminal is operational since 1998 with a capacity of 12 MT p.a and the following facilities:
Mechanized Export Handling facilities Inward Conveyor Bleeding Line § Mechanized Import Handing facilities Mobile Harbour§Outward Conveyer System Other§ Port Storage Facilities Dry Bulk Cargo Liquid Cargo §Cranes Infrastructure Wheat Cleaning System Rice Sortex Machine
Road Mundra SEZ is linked to the National Highway through NH-8A ext. and State Highways SH-6 and SH-48.
Rail Mundra SEZ has its own 57-km long rail-link and an in-zone receipt and dispatch yard which is connected to the National Railway network. It has the shortest rail route from any Port to Northern India.
Air A fully functional airport at Bhuj is 65 km from Mundra SEZ. Kandla Airport is at distance of 55 km from Mundra Port (about 5 km from the notified Mundra SEZ bounda
Administrative structures of port and aspects of port functioning
port control
Port control,signal station,VTMS fire fitting unit flotilla
(tugs,pilot boat,mooring
boat,PCV)
Dredging departnent hydrographic survay dept.
Motor-boat : pollution control work-boat ECOCEANE CATAGLOP
ECOGLOP
Ecoglop, a real «go anywhere cleaner», is particularly adapted
to the cleaning of marinas, lakes, canals...
Its small size and its integrated wheels facilitate its launching.
It collects up floating solid waste, even in diffi cult-to-get-at areas :
- Solid floating waste (wood, plastics, polystyrene, algae...) is collected in a pivoting basket which is automatically emptied into an on board container.
- liquid floating waste (oils and hydrocarbons) are stored fl oating in a separator tank.
Motor-boat : pollution control work-boat ECOCEANE CATAGLOP
CATAGLOP XL
Cataglop XL is the latest edition of the range. It has been specially
designed to collect up marcro-waste and floating hydrocarbons in costal
areas up to 5 nautical miles from the shore, near beaches, rocky areas,
cliffs, etc...
It has a cruising speed of 5,5 knots.
It collects floating solid waste, even in diffi cult-to-get-at areas:
- Solid floating waste (wood, plastics, polystyrene, algae...) is collected in a pivoting basket which is automatically empted into an ondeck container.
- liquid floating waste (oils and hydrocarbons) is stored in a separator tank.
A TUG BOAT:-
A tugboat, or tug, is a boat used to maneuver, primarily by towing or pushing, other vessels (see shipping) in harbors, over the open sea or through rivers and canals. Tugboats are also used to tow barges, disabled ships, or other equipment like oil platforms.
Tugboats are quite strong for their size. Early tugboats had steam engines (see steamboat); today diesel engines are used. Tugboat engines typically produce 750 to 3,000 horsepower (500 to 2,000 kW), but larger boats (used in deep waters) can have power ratings up to 25,000 hp (20,000 kW) and usually have an extreme power:tonnage-ratio (normal cargo and passenger ships have a P:T-ratio (in kW:GRT, of 0.35-1.20, whereas large tugs typically are 2.20-4.50 and small harbour-tugs 4.0-9.5). The engines are often the same as those used in railroad locomotives, but typically drive the propeller mechanically instead of converting the engine output to power electric motors, as is common for railroad engines. For safety, tugboats' engines often feature two of each critical part for redundancy.[citation needed]
A tugboat's power is typically stated by its engine's horsepower and its overall Bollard pull.
Tugboats are highly maneuverable, and various propulsion systems have been developed to increase maneuverability and increase safety. The earliest tugs were fitted with paddle wheels, but these were soon replaced by propeller-driven tugs. Kort nozzles have been added to increase thrust per kW/hp. This was followed by the nozzle-rudder, which omitted the need for a conventional rudder. The cycloidal propeller was developed prior to World War II but was only occasionally used in tugs because of its maneuverability. After World War II it was also linked to safety due to the development of the Voith Water Tractor, a tugboat configuration which could not be pulled over by its tow. In the late 1950s, the Z-drive or (azimuth thruster) was developed. Although sometimes referred to as the Schottel system, many brands exist: Schottel, Z-Peller, Duckpeller, Thrustmaster, Ulstein, Wärtsilä, etc. The propulsion systems are used on tugboats designed for tasks such as ship docking and marine construction. Conventional propeller/rudder configurations are more efficient for port-to-port towing.
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